The religious settlement: the middle way
Elizabeth's challenges
Upon her accession in 1558, Elizabeth inherited a nation that had suffered religious flux between Protestantism and Catholicism for many years. The Reformation of Henry VIII had made the monarch the spiritual as well as secular head of the realm, with Protestantism coming in under Edward VI. Mary reversed all of this when she restored Catholicism as the state religion and the Pope as the head of the church. Elizabeth wished to create a new moderate religious settlement derived from Henry VIII's break from Rome. She established the Church of England.
Elizabeth's goal was that of a stable, peaceful nation with a strong government free from the influence of foreign powers, whether in matters of church or state. In order to realise this vision it was necessary to reassert the power of the state over religion and to reach a religious settlement that was as inclusive as possible. These changes needed to be introduced with a minimum of confrontation, in order to overcome fear and suspicion at home and abroad, and to carry as many people with Elizabeth as possible.
The choice of state religion would have consequences both at home and in the international arena. For instance, choosing to remain Catholic would be surrendering power to Rome and would ally England with other Catholic states, such as France and Spain, but possibly alienate the Protestant Dutch, who were England's main trading partner. Returning to Protestantism would antagonize Catholic Spain, the most powerful nation in the world at the time. It might also strike fear into the hearts of English Catholics, fearing retribution and persecution from Protestant reformers, particularly those following the more evangelical strains developing on the continent.
A delicate, considered balancing-act had to be sought and found.
Mission statement
Elizabeth's first Parliament was inaugurated on 25 January 1559. The new queen was in attendance for the opening speech, which was delivered by Nicholas Bacon, the Lord Keeper of the Privy Seal. As spokesman for the government, Bacon delivered its mission statement: to unite 'the people of this realm into a uniform order of religion'.
He also outlined the course to reach this goal by explaining that 'all sophistical, captious and frivolous arguments and quiddities … [were] comlier for scholars than for councillors,' and that members were not to insult each other with terms like 'heretic', 'schismatic' or 'Papist'.
They were not going to waste time on abstract theological debates but were going to get down to the business at hand of finding concrete solutions to the problems of the day.
Likewise, matters were to be debated in a respectful fashion: extremism would not be tolerated and name-calling and mud-slinging would not help them move forward.
The message was very clear: that they were all, including Elizabeth, members of the same team, working together for a common goal – that of a united, prosperous England. Extremes were to be avoided in order to unite, not divide. In this address, Elizabeth very deliberately disassociated herself from the unpopularity of Mary's regime by signalling how hers would be different.
Religious statement
The first act passed by the House of Commons in February 1559 joined together a bill of supremacy, establishing Elizabeth as head of the church, with one of uniformity, dealing with the type of faith and service. The proposed settlement was roundly rejected and adulterated by the House of Lords, with its Catholic majority. The bill proposed by the House of Lords was unacceptable to the government, as was conceding defeat.
Elizabeth and her pro-reform ministers had to regroup and plan another strategy. A debate was scheduled during the Easter recess between a team of Catholics and a team of Protestants, with the Privy Council as judge and Bacon as chairman. The debate quickly descended into name-calling and two of the Catholics ended up being sent to the Tower for contempt.
During this interlude, Elizabeth and her team learnt not to underestimate the opposition, as well as the need for compromise to achieve their aims. When Parliament reconvened in April, the two issues were presented separately and considerable concessions had been made.
The Act of Supremacy still abolished papal supremacy but defined Elizabeth as Supreme Governor, instead of Supreme Head, of the church. This change of title placated those on both sides who did not feel that a woman could be the head of the church and the act passed fairly easily.
The Act of Uniformity of 1559 set out the groundwork for the Elizabethan church. It restored the 1552 version of the English Prayer Book but kept many of the familiar old practices and allowed for two interpretations of communion – one Catholic and one Protestant. The bill was hotly debated and eventually passed by only three votes – a narrow victory indeed, considering that two of the Catholics were still imprisoned and another was absent.
On 8 May 1559, Elizabeth attended Parliament to give her approval to the two new acts. In Bacon's closing speech he portrayed the length of the proceedings as having been necessary for a full and weighty debate which resulted in a 'well nigh an universal consent and agreement'.
A new Church of England
In December 1559 Matthew Parker was consecrated as the first Archbishop of Canterbury of this new Elizabethan church. A moderate, scholarly man, he helped Elizabeth to guide the new church and to withstand attempts to reform it further during her reign. Both were opponents of religious extremism, of whatever sort, and while drawing on aspects of Catholicism and Protestantism, avoided the extreme practices and beliefs of each. Parker and Elizabeth both had great respect for history and sought to ground the new church in past traditions.
Parker was involved in formulating the doctrines of the new church in 'The Thirty-Nine Articles of Religion Produced by Convocation' in 1563. The new hybrid Elizabethan church looked Catholic but its beliefs were largely Protestant. One of the major tenets of Protestant belief is in the importance of the scriptures – the 'Word of God' – and that access should not just be reserved for the clergy through being written in Latin, but should be available to all in their own language. Parker supervised the publication of the Bishops' Bible in English, for use in churches and homes.
The process of building a strong independent England by re-asserting the authority of the Crown and consolidating power away from outside influences, whether foreign states or the church, had begun. The 'Painted Triptych of the Royal Arms' provides a visual representation of the religious settlement of 1559 and its legacy. It simultaneously asserts the supremacy of the state over religion and the unity of church and state as a new independent entity.
While the 1559 settlement could not satisfy either orthodox Catholics or hard-core Protestants, the majority accepted it. The framework for the Church of England had been laid and the sheer longevity of Elizabeth's reign allowed it to take root and become a national institution. Despite changes in the intervening years, the 1559 settlement still informs the Church of England of today. (See the timeline of Elizabeth's early years [PDF fie].)
Sir Nicholas Bacon
Sir Nicholas Bacon (1509–79) was a lawyer and a scholar. He was appointed Lord Keeper of the Privy Seal in December 1558, perhaps at the suggestion of Cecil, who was his brother-in-law. Shortly afterwards he was knighted, made a member of the Privy Council and Lord Chancellor. Bacon acted as Elizabeth's trusted mouthpiece in Parliament. His motto was Mediocria firma – 'the middle ground is best' – and he was an influential adviser on the religious settlement.
Matthew Parker
Matthew Parker (1504–75) had served as chaplain to Elizabeth's mother, Anne Boleyn, and her brother, Edward VI, before being consecrated Elizabeth's first Archbishop of Canterbury in December 1559. A moderate, scholarly man, he helped guide the Anglican Church during its formative years, withstanding pressure from both Catholics and Puritans. His diligent research on the origins of the church in England earned him the nickname 'Nosey Parker'.