The Armada of 1588
The road to war
England, the upstart Protestant nation with its 'heretic' Queen, had been a thorn in King Philip II of Spain's side for some time before he finally decided to act in 1587. He had initially tried to keep England both Catholic and under his control by asking Elizabeth to marry him in 1559, an offer she rejected. He then held out hope that Mary, Queen of Scots, would succeed Elizabeth to the throne, either naturally or as a result of one of the many assassination plots against Elizabeth, and reunite England with Europe under Catholic rule. This hope was dashed when Francis Walsingham, Elizabeth's able spymaster, uncovered the Babington Plot to overthrow Elizabeth in 1586. Mary was implicated in the plot, with reams of evidence against her, and was eventually executed on 8 February 1587.
English privateers had also been looting Spanish ships and ports for almost 20 years and Elizabeth refused to condemn them or return the booty. These attacks on Spain's wealth were a direct challenge to Spain's maritime and colonial monopoly. The stakes were further raised in 1585 when Elizabeth pledged English support for the Dutch struggle for independence from their Spanish masters. For his part, Philip had authorized attacks on English seafarers for years, had been involved in a number of the conspiracies to replace Elizabeth and had been encouraging an Irish rebellion against England.
Elizabeth avoided outright war with Philip for many years. Philip, a cautious man, saw France as a greater danger until 1585, but thereafter began to consider how to address the threats to his empire from the defiant English upstart. Mary's execution – the regicide of a Catholic monarch – helped to bring matters to a head and, at the Pope's urging, Philip stepped up his preparations for an invasion of England.
Philip planned a two-pronged attack to conquer England. Spain's 'Invincible Armada' (armed fleet) – over 130 of the biggest ships in the world making up the largest fleet yet seen – would sail from Spain to the English Channel where it would collect a huge land army raised by the Duke of Parma, Governor of the Spanish Netherlands. The Armada would land on the Kent coast, march on London and free the nation of Elizabeth and her government.
England prepares for war
Thanks to the extensive spy network assembled by Walsingham, intelligence about the impending invasion was available almost as soon as the plans were laid. Francis Drake led a pre-emptive strike on Spanish ships in Cadiz in April 1587. A number of Spanish ships were destroyed. What Drake described as his 'singeing of the King of Spain's beard', delayed the Armada for a year and allowed the English to mobilize their defence.
In December 1587 Lord Howard of Effingham, the Lord Admiral, was named 'lieutenant general and commander-in-chief of the navy prepared to the seas against Spain'. Although not a celebrated sailor like Drake, he was an able commander and had the support of the nobility. He was also known for his willingness to listen to those more experienced, such as Drake, who was appointed his Vice-Admiral. Howard's was a key appointment, as his aristocratic lineage gave him the authority to keep the huge egos under him, such as Drake, in check. The English fleet was mobilized and intelligence continued to be gathered about the timing and route of the attack, as well as the numbers of ships and troops involved.
During all this, Elizabeth continued to negotiate with the Duke of Parma about a solution to the situation in the Netherlands, following the strategy so aptly put by William Cecil:
'seek peace but prepare for war'
Attempted invasion by the Spanish Armada
On 19 July 1588 the Spanish Armada was sighted off the Lizard in Cornwall. A fast English ship conveyed the news and a series of beacons were lit along the coast to spread the warning. The English fleet based at Plymouth attempted to disrupt the Armada's passage and managed to inflict some damage but could not stop it.
The Armada anchored off Calais on 27 July 1588. The Duke of Parma and his army had not yet arrived to join them, so the English used this advantage and sent in eight fireships on the night of 28 July. Although no Spanish ships caught fire, the attack made the Spaniards panic, cut their anchor cables and scatter out to sea to avoid them. A day of fierce fighting between the two fleets followed, called the Battle of the Gravelines, during which the Spanish fleet were blown dangerously close to the shore. Then the wind changed and they sailed northward.
The defeat of the Spanish Armada
Victory followed shortly afterwards. On 31 July 1588 the Spanish tried to turn around to meet up with Parma and his army again. However, the winds from the south-west prevailed and they were prevented from sailing back into the English Channel. The decision was made to give up and return to Spain by sailing north around Scotland. Howard and his fleet pursued them into the North Sea for three days until it became clear they were leaving. Bad storms finished off the job the English fleet had begun: many of the fleeing Spanish ships were wrecked on the coasts of Scotland and Ireland and less than half of the 'Invincible Armada' made it back to Spain.
The attempted take-over had been thwarted. Howard's organized, strategic response to the threat meant that many – including the Spanish – were surprised that the battle wasn't won even more quickly.
Charles Howard, Baron Howard of Effingham
Charles Howard, Baron Howard of Effingham (1536–1624) was one of Elizabeth's cousins on her mother's side. He was appointed Lord Admiral in 1585, participated in the trial of Mary, Queen of Scots, and urged Elizabeth to sign Mary's death warrant. He was a trusted servant of Elizabeth's and is best remembered for his role as England's first commander-in-chief of its first major fleet, and for his care of the men in his service. Elizabeth made him 1st Earl of Nottingham in 1596.