Darwin | Fitzroy | HMS Beagle | Beagle 2

Charles Darwin (1809–82)

Charles Darwin © English Heritage Charles Darwin was born on February 12, 1809 in Shrewsbury, England. From 1831 to 1836 Darwin served as an unpaid naturalist on a science expedition aboard HMS Beagle. His father wanted Charles to follow a career in the clergy and strongly opposed him joining the expedition.

The expedition visited many places around the world and Darwin studied the various plants and animals, collecting specimens for further analysis. In South America, Darwin found fossils of extinct animals that were similar to modern species. Furthermore, on the Galapagos Islands he noticed many variations of plants and animals that were similar to those he found in South America.

Further analysis of the specimens upon his return to London led Darwin to several related theories:

• evolution did occur
• evolutionary change was gradual, occuring over thousands and millions of years
• the primary mechanism for evolution was a process Darwin refered to as natural selection
• the millions of species alive today arose from a single original life form through a branching process he called 'specialization'.

Darwin's theory of evolutionary selection holds that variation within species occurs randomly and that the survival or extinction of each organism is determined by that organism's ability to adapt to its environment. He first published these theories in his book On the Origin of Species in 1859.

Darwin's work had a tremendous impact on society at the time. While other writers and theologians used his research to support their views and ideas, Darwin avoided talking about the theological and sociological aspects of his work. Darwin continued to write on botany, geology and zoology until his death in 1882. He is buried in Westminster Abbey.

Robert Fitzroy (1805–65)

Born on July 5 1805, Robert Fitzroy was a descendant of Charles II. He started his career in the Royal Navy in 1819, at the age of 12. At 19, he passed the Lieutenant's exam and became a commissioned officer and was soon assigned to HMS Beagle under the command of Captain Pringle Stokes. Fitzroy was gven command of the Beagle in August 1828 following Captain Stokes' suicide in Tierra del Fuego, South America. In 1831 he was assigned as captain of the second Beagle surveying expedition, publishing two books about the voyage in 1839.

Interested in natural science, Fitzroy demanded an enthusiastic and well-trained naturalist should accompany him on the second Beagle survey. Furthermore, he wanted him to be a gentleman of high social standing who would share meals at his dinner table. Darwin was suggested to Fitzroy, who was a little suspicious of him at first. They got along very well, although years after the Beagle voyages, their relationship became strained due to Darwin's views on evolution.

He became MP for Durham in 1841 and the governor of New Zealand in 1843, but was recalled in 1845 following a statement declaring Maori land claims were as valid as those of the settlers. He retired from active duty in 1850, by which time he was an admiral.

In 1854 he was appointed head of a new department that eventually became the Meteorological Office. His objectives were to compile wind statistics to aid navigation but soon added establishing barometer stations, telegraphic reporting, increasing weather observations and, in 1861, the first storm warnings. These activities became routine weather forecasts similar to those employed today. He invented the barometer which he named the 'Fitzroy barometer' and published The Weather Book in 1863.

Fitzroy committed suicide on April 30, 1865 in a bout of depression after failing to be chosen as the Chief Naval Officer in the Marine Department.

Science

 Sextant, D6485_1Fitzroy became a pioneer in meteorology, where his achievements equalled his great naval career. The Beagle voyages saw the use of technology such as theodolites, chronometers and barometers used to provide accurate survey information and, equally important, meteorological data and weather forcasting. The Darwin voyage was the first time the Beaufort wind scale was used for wind observations. One type of barometer used by Fitzroy was a storm glass. Observing the liquid in the storm glass indicated changes in the weather:

• if the liquid in the glass was clear, the weather would be bright and clear
• cloudy liquid suggested the weather would also be cloudy, perhaps with some rain
• small dots in the liquid indicated humid or foggy weather
• a cloudy glass with small stars indicated thunderstorms
• if the liquid contained small stars on sunny winter days, snow was expected
• if there were large flakes throughout the liquid, it would be overcast in temperate seasons or snowy in the winter
• crystals at the bottom indicated frost
• threads near the top meant it would be windy.

HMS Beagle

 HMS Beagle © English HeritageHMS Beagle, built in 1820, measured just 27 meters (90’4’’) in length, with a breadth of 7 meters (24’6’’) and weighed 235 tons. She was a 10-gun brig, often called a 'coffin brig' because they had a reputation for sinking. It was specially commissioned for the new surveying programme and never saw active service.

Her career as a survey ship began in 1826 with voyages to Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego under the command of Captain Parker King, returning to Plymouth in 1830. At the end of 1831, she again sailed for South America under the command of Captain FitzRoy.

The ship suffered a great deal of damage but was extensivley refitted and improved throughout her life on the seas, often at great expense to her captain. For example, a mizzenmast was added to make her more manoeuvrable in the shallow coastal waters.

In 1845, the ship was left as a watch vessel, and sold to Murray and Trainer in 1870 to be broken up.

Beagle 2

The Beagle 2 lander (All Rights Reserved Beagle 2) The British-led Beagle 2 project is part of the European Space Agency's (ESA) Mars Express mission. The probe consists of the Entry, Descent and Landing System (EDLS) and the lander itself. The aim of the mission is to search for evidence of past life on Mars by exploring the surface and collecting samples for testing. To achieve this, the Beagle 2 lander has a mole for collecting samples and a robotic arm to manipulate instruments and perform tests.

The Mars Express spacecraft is due to be launched on a Soyuz/Fregat rocket from Baikonur Cosmodrome, Kazakhstan in June 2003 and arrive at Mars in December 2003.

Entry, descent and landing system (EDLS)

Five days before the Mars Express reaches its destination, the EDLS will be released from the Mars Express spacecraft. The EDLS, which holds Beagle 2, has three separate subsystems:

• the entry system comprises a shell which will protect the lander from contamination in Earth's atmosphere and throughout the journey to Mars. It will also serve as a heat shield as the lander enters the Martian atmosphere at over 14,000mph
• the descent system separates the lander from the shielding and deploys a parachute to slow the lander down before impact on the surface
• the landing system inflates a series of bags to absorb the shock of the impact

The lander

The two halves of the lander are joined by a spring-loaded hinge which will ensure it opens to its correct position irrespective of the orientation which Beagle 2 finds itself on Mars.

The lander has been designed to be very robust and to remain small and lightweight. To achieve this, Beagle 2 has no back-up systems.

The clam-shaped lander is composed of a toughened outer shell and an inner shell which houses the various scientific instruments and tools. They include:

• a mass spectrometer
• three cameras
• environmental sensors
• solar panels
• a robotic arm
• the mole
• telecommunications systems.

Instruments

A robotic arm holds all of the landers scientific instruments, supports the panoramic cameras and deploys the mole, known as the Planetary UnderSurface Tool (PLUTO).

The mole, using a spring mechanism, can crawl across the surface at a rate of 1cm every six seconds. It collects and stores samples in a small cavity in the tip by burrowing into the surface. The mole is then wound back to the lander where the robotic arm takes the sample for testing.